Another radical change is effected by the use of mutes. When muted, the clear, singing tone of the strings becomes dull in soft passages, turns to a slight hiss or whistle in loud ones, and the volume of tone is always greatly reduced. (*4)

The position of the bow on the string will affect the resonance of an instrument. Playing with the bow close to the bridge (sul ponticello), chiefly used tremolando, produces a metallic sound; playing on the finger-board (sul tasto, flautando) creates a dull, veiled effect.

Note: Another absolutely different sound results from playing with the back or wood of the bow (col legno). This produces a sound like a xylophone or a hollow pizzicato. It is discussed under the heading of instruments of little sustaining power.

The five sets of strings with number of players given above produce a fairly even balance of tone. If there is any surplus of strength it must be on the side of the first violins, as they must be heard distinctly on account of the important part they play in the harmonic scheme. Besides this, an extra desk of first violins is usual in all orchestras, and as a general rule they possess a more powerful tone than second violins. The latter, with the violas, play a secondary part, and do not stand out so prominently. The 'cellos and double basses are heard more distinctly, and in the majority of cases form the bass in octaves.

In conclusion, it may be said that the group of strings, as a melodic element, is able to perform all manner of passages, rapid and interrupted phrases of every description, diatonic or chromatic in character. Capable of sustaining notes without difficulty, of playing chords of three and four notes; adapted to the infinite variety of shades of expression, and easily divisible into numerous sundry parts, the string group in an orchestra may be considered as a harmonic element particularly rich in resource.

Black lines on each string denote the general range in orchestral writing; the dotted lines give the registers, low, medium, high, very high.





B. Wind Instruments.

Wood-wind.

Note:1: Composers using the first class in the course of a big work (oratorio, opera, symphony, etc.) may introduce special instruments, called extras, for a long or short period of time; each of these instruments involves an extra player not required throughout the entire work. Meyerbeer was fond of doing this, but other composers, Glinka for example, refrain from increasing the number of performers by employing extras (Eng. horn part in Rousslan). Wagner uses all three classes in the above table (in pair's: Tannenhauser-in three's: Tristan -in four's: The Ring).

Note 2: Mlada is the only work of mine involving formation by four's. Ivan the Terrible, Sadko, The Legend of Tsar Saltan, The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh and The Golden Cockerel all belong to the second class, and in my other works, wood-wind in pair's is used with a varying number of extras. The Christmas Night, with its two oboes, and two bassoons, three flutes and three clarinets, forms an intermediate class

Considering the instruments it comprises, the string group offers a fair variety of color, and contrast in compass, but this diversity of range and timbre is subtle and not easily discerned. In the wood-wind department, however, the difference in register and quality of flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons is striking to a degree. As a rule, wood-wind instruments are less flexible than strings; they lack the vitality and power, and are less capable of different shade of expression.

Suggested Position of Woodwinds in an Orchestra
(positions may vary depending on the work,the venue, the orchestra and other factors)

a) instruments of nasal quality and dark resonance-oboes and bassoons (Eng. horn and double bassoon); and
b) instruments of "chest-voice" quality and bright tone-flutes and clarinets (piccolo, bass flute, small clarinet, bass clarinet).

Note to Table B. In the above Table B the top note in each register serves as the bottom note in the next, as the limits to each register are not defined absolutely. The note G fixes the register of flutes and oboes, C for the clarinets and bassoons. In the very high compass those notes are only given which can really be used; anything higher and not printed as actual notes are either too difficult to produce or of no artistic value. The number of sounds obtainable in the highest compass is indefinite, and depends, partly on the quality of the instrument itself, partly on the position and application of the lips. The signs > < are not to be mistaken for crescendo and diminuendo; they indicate how the resonance of an instrument increases or diminishes in relation to the characteristic quality of its timbre. The scope of greatest expression for each typical instrument is marked thus, |_______| under the notes; the range is the same in each instrument of the same type.

Note: It is a difficult matter to define tone quality in words; we must encroach upon the domain of sight, feeling, and even taste. Though borrowed from these senses, I have no doubt as to the appropriateness of my comparisons, but, as a general rule definitions drawn from other sources are too elementary to be applied to music. No condemnatory meaning however should be attached to my descriptions, for in using the terms thick, piercing, shrill, dry, etc. my object is to express artistic fitness in words, rather than material exactitude. Instrumental sounds which have no musical meaning are classed by me in the category of useless sounds, and I refer to them as such, giving my reasons. With the exception of these, the reader is advised to consider all other orchestral timbres beautiful from an artistic point of view, although it is necessary, at times, to put them to other uses.urther on, a table of wind instruments is appended, outlining the approximate limit of range, defining different qualities of tone and indicating the scope of greatest expression (the piccolo and double bassoon excepted).

a) The rapid repetition' of a single note by single tonguing is common to all wind instruments; repetition of a single note by means of double tonguing is only possible on the flute, a reedless instrument.

b) On account of its construction the clarinet is not well adapted to sudden leaps from one octave to another; these skips are easier on flutes, oboes and bassoons.

c) Arpeggios and rapid alternation of two intervals legato sound well on flutes and clarinets, but not on oboes and bassoons.

a) Flute: Cold in quality, specially suitable, in the major key, to melodies of light and graceful character; in the minor key, to slight touches of transient sorrow.

b) Oboe: Artless and gay in the major, pathetic and sad in the minor.

c) Clarinet: Pliable and expressive, suitable, in the major, to melodies of a joyful or contemplative character, or outbursts of mirth; in the minor, to sad and reflective melodies or impassioned and dramatic passages.

d) Bassoon: In the major, an atmosphere of senile mockery; a sad, ailing quality in the minor.

Note: It is true that no mood or frame of mind, whether it be joyful or sad, meditative or lively, careless or reflective, mocking or distressed can be aroused by one single isolated timbre; it depends more upon the general melodic line, the harmony, rhythm, and dynamic shades of expression, upon the whole formation of a given piece of music. The choice of instruments and timbre to be adopted depends on the position which melody and harmony occupy in the seven-octave scale of the orchestra; for example, a melody of light character in the tenor register could not be given to the flutes, or a sad, plaintive phrase in the high soprano register confided to the bassoons. But the ease with which tone color can be adapted to expression must not be forgotten, and in the first of these two cases it may be conceded that the mocking character of the bassoon could easily and quite naturally assume a light-hearted aspect, and in the second case, that the slightly melancholy timbre of the flute is some-what related to the feeling of sorrow and distress with which the passage is to be permeated. The case of a melody coinciding in character with the instrument on which it is played is of special importance, as the effect produced cannot fail to be successful. There are also moments when a composer's artistic feeling prompts him to employ instruments, the character of which is at variance with the written melody (for eccentric, grotesque effects, etc.).

Note: Nowadays, when the limits of the orchestral scale are considerably extended (up to the high C of the 7th octave, and down to the low C, 16 ft. contra octave), the piccolo forms an indispensable constituent of the wind-group; similarly, it is recognized that the double bassoon is capable of supplying valuable assistance. The small clarinet is rarely employed and only for color effects.

Note: Of the six special instruments referred to above, the piccolo and double bassoon were the first to be used in the orchestra; the latter, however, was neglected after Beethoven's death and did not reappear until towards the end of the 19th century. The Eng. horn and bass clarinet were employed initially during the first half of the same century by Berlioz, Meyerbeer, and others, and for some time retained their position as extras, to become, later on, permanent orchestral factors, first in the theatre, then in the concert room. Very few attempts have been made to introduce the small clarinet into the orchestra (Berlioz etc.); this instrument together with the bass flute is used in my opera-ballet Mlada (1892), and also in my most recent compositions, The Christmas Night, and Sadko; the bass flute will also be found in The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh, and in "Ivan the Terrible" (revised).

and on the oboe and English horn:

Take an Interactive Tour of Orchestral Instruments

See and hear the orchestral instruments of Personal Orchestra in this interactive guide.

Professor Comments:

Professor Brick Comments: With the passage of nearly a century after this text was written, many of the practices RK designates as cautionary are much more common and widely used today. Over the years, once difficult techniques have become standard repertoire for today’s players. Certain orchestral instruments appearing in many 20th century works were not in existance in RK's lifetime and certain techniques had yet to become accepted. Whereas RK’s cautions are notable, I encourage everyone to explore some of the limits defined herein. Also, remember that RK’s comments apply pretty much to live performance. In general, if an orchestration is successful live, it will be successful in a recording HOWEVER the opposite is not true. Since I suspect much of this crowd will be interested in recording aspects as well, I may, from time to time, comment when significant differences arise if you all find this sort of comment helpful.
1. Professor Belkin Comments: Using Divisi and Double Stops - While Rimsky explains various ways to divide the strings, he does not specify WHEN it is better to divide them, and when to use double stops. Apart from the obvious limits on the playability of double stops, the governing principle is as follows:
- use double stops for strong ACCENT
- use divisi for thinning down the sound
Playing more than 2 notes at a time on a string instrument always involves a slight rhythmic bump: 3 and 4 note chords need a short moment of preparation. Also they are never played completely simultaneously. Therefore, while they cannot be inserted seamlessly into a very quick or very legato line, IF the music requires a strong accent, they add lots of punch. IN cases where classical composers have written them into quick lines, conductors may divide a 4 note chord into 2 x 2.
2. Professor Belkin Comments: The "Quartet" - RK (and various other writers on orchestration) often refer to the string section as "the quartet", despite the fact that it has five sections. This is because the normal role for the double basses in classical orchestration is to double and solidify the cellos with the same bass line an octave lower, leaving only four real parts. This is the "normal" sound of the string orchestra. Another reason for this terminology is that many of the basic ways of arranging the string orchestra derive in large part from the (solo) string quartet. N.B.: When RK uses this term he does NOT refer to a quartet of soloists within the orchestra!
3. Professor Welter Comments: Harmonics - the loudest possible dynamic with harmonics is mp.
4. Professor Brick Comments: Read this paragraph again! “Con Sordino” does not necessarily mean a passage will be “soft” it means the passage will be “softer” “Con Sordino” is a relative term. Folks new to the art of orchestration are always shy to write above mf “con sordino” You shouldn’t be shy. “Con Sordino in loud passages becomes a great coloration. This will also be of great importance when discussing the very cool little brass mutes and the very special types of woodwind mutes.
5. Professor Brick Comments: This is a very curious statement. Don’t take RK’s words literally here. RK’s use of the term “Bass Flute” does not apply to the instrument we know today as the “Bass Flute” as the instrument was not invented until after his death. Rather I believe he refers to a Bass Flute as a flute lower than the C flute. By today’s terminology, the “alto flute” is a much more common doubler than the bass flute. Whereas almost any professional orchestra will have a flautist that can double on Alto the same cannot be said about the Bass Flute (and definitely not the contrabass flute!) On a recent recording date in Prague I was surprised to be informed that not a single bass flute was available. To be sure, even here in NY the roster of Bass Flutes is quite limited. Similarly, in many cases, bassoon players do not double on contrabassoon. It’s always good to check with the orchestra manager for that particular groups doublings.
6. Professor Belkin Comments: More on Woodwinds - Rimsky's comments on the woodwinds are an excellent start to understanding them. Basically the winds have two uses in orchestration: melodic and harmonic. The melodic use of the winds is almost always as SOLO instruments. (Doubling the same instrument at the unison adds very little loudness, and usually just sounds a bit out of tune.) In first learning to use them, it is useful to think of each wind instrument as really three instruments in one: low, medium, and high. Although the register transitions are not overly drastic, as one moves into each new register, the color changes sufficiently to be considered another color. So: it is better to think of writing for "high flute and low bassoon" rather than just flute and bassoon - all the more so, as the balance between the individual winds, as well as with other instruments will vary *radically* according to the register used. The harmonic use of winds is discussed later in the treatise. Suffice it to say here, that once again, it is best to think of each wind instrument as three in one when calculating blend.
7. Professor Dwyer Comments: Writing for Double Basses:
a. Double basses on their own (arco) seldom, if ever, sound good, and should not be given an independent part of a melodious character. In strings only, if two low parts are required it is better to divide the cellos and let the double basses double the 2nd cellos. Or double the basses with a wind instrument. They sound acceptable if given sustained notes on their own however. And pizzicato basses always sound very good and can be given an independent part if necessary. It follows that the main uses of arco basses are as follows:
b. Resting. The extra foundational sound provided by octave doubling should only be used when this solid depth is important, as for example in a tutti. Unremitting double bass sound can fatigue the ear of the listener, especially in the lowest register. In many a passage the bass part can be left to the cellos alone, or to cellos and bassoons. There is nothing much wrong with page after page of rests for the double basses: when they are used they will be all the more effective.
c. Doubling the cellos an octave lower will be the main function when they do play. So when in doubt, that's the thing to do.
d. Doubling cellos at the unison. The higher strings of the double basses are far more effective than the lower ones, so when the bottom line is low, it is often better to double the cellos at the unison (i.e. octave higher on paper). In any case the cellos are a touch weaker on their bottom string so this could help, particularly if the melody is important.
e. Playing short notes on the accents (followed by rests). This is common in dance music of all kinds, in fact J. Strauss sometimes gives the bass part to the double basses alone, in short notes.
f. Rapidly repeated notes, in fact very rapid passages of any kind make too much attack noise unless slurred, (also the long strings take a little longer to "speak") and doubled parts which would be easy for cellos are often simplified into longer notes for the basses.
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